Health Markers

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD), is a crucial coenzyme found in all living cells. It plays a vital role in cellular metabolism, particularly in redox reactions, where it alternates between NAD+ (oxidized form) and NADH (reduced form). Beyond its role in energy metabolism, NAD+ is also involved in cell signaling, DNA repair, and regulation of gene expression. The maintenance of NAD+ levels is important for cellular health and function, and its depletion is linked to aging and various diseases....



Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)

Cis-aconitate is an intermediate in the Krebs cycle, a key metabolic pathway involved in energy production in cells. It forms during the conversion of citrate to isocitrate, facilitated by the enzyme aconitase. This cycle is crucial for oxidizing nutrients to generate ATP, the primary energy currency of the cell. Additionally, the Krebs cycle, including the cis-aconitate step, provides important precursors for biosynthetic pathways like amino acid, nucleotide, and fatty acid synthesis....

Cis-aconitate

eGFR, or Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate, is a test that estimates the rate at which the kidneys filter waste from the blood. It is calculated based on serum creatinine levels, age, body size, and gender. eGFR is a crucial indicator of kidney function, helping to assess whether the kidneys are working effectively. A lower eGFR indicates poorer kidney function, which can signify kidney disease or damage....

eGFR (Estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate)

Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), formerly known as serum glutamic-pyruvic transaminase (SGPT), is an enzyme primarily found in the liver. It plays a vital role in metabolizing proteins and is crucial for various metabolic processes. ALT levels in the blood are indicative of liver health, as the enzyme is released into the bloodstream when liver cells are damaged or inflamed....

ALT (SGPT)

The measurement of histamine in stool is a diagnostic tThe LDL/HDL ratio is a crucial diagnostic marker used to assess the risk of cardiovascular diseases. This ratio compares the levels of low-density lipoprotein (LDL), often referred to as "bad" cholesterol, to high-density lipoprotein (HDL), known as "good" cholesterol. LDL is responsible for transporting cholesterol to the arteries, where it can build up and form plaques that increase the risk of heart attacks and strokes. HDL, on the other hand, helps remove cholesterol from the arteries, transporting it back to the liver for excretion or re-utilization. A higher LDL/HDL ratio indicates...



LDL-HDL Ratio

Glucose, a simple sugar, is the primary source of energy for the body's cells. It plays a crucial role in metabolic processes and is critical for brain function, muscle activity, and overall energy. In the bloodstream, the level of glucose (commonly referred to as blood sugar) is tightly regulated by hormones such as insulin and glucagon. Imbalances in glucose levels can lead to conditions like diabetes mellitus, hypoglycemia, and hyperglycemia, affecting overall health and requiring medical management to maintain glucose at healthy levels....

Glucose

Beta-hydroxybutyrate (BHB) is a ketone body produced by the liver from fatty acids during periods of low food intake, fasting, intense exercise, or a low-carbohydrate diet. It serves as an alternative energy source, especially for the brain, when glucose is scarce. BHB is a key indicator of ketosis, a metabolic state achieved through ketogenic diets or fasting....

Beta-hydroxybutyrate

Betaine, found in foods like beets and spinach, plays several roles in the body. It acts as a methyl donor in methylation processes, helps regulate cellular fluid balance, supports liver health by preventing fatty deposits, and can lower homocysteine levels, benefiting heart health....

Betaine

Blood in urine, medically known as hematuria, refers to the presence of red blood cells in the urine. It can be visible, changing the urine's color to pink, red, or cola-like, or microscopic, detectable only through a urine test. Hematuria can indicate various underlying conditions ranging from benign to serious....

Blood (urine)

Carnitine is a compound crucial for energy production, synthesized in the liver and kidneys. It transports long-chain fatty acids into mitochondria for oxidation and energy release, and also helps remove waste products from cells. Found mainly in animal products, carnitine is generally produced in sufficient amounts by the body....

Carnitine

Anti-Thyroglobulin (A-TG) antibodies are immune system proteins that attack thyroglobulin, a key protein in the thyroid gland essential for producing thyroid hormones. Elevated A-TG levels can be a sign of autoimmune thyroid conditions such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis or Graves' disease. These disorders can lead to various symptoms, impacting thyroid function and overall health. Monitoring A-TG levels is crucial in diagnosing and managing these thyroid conditions....

A-TG

Cholesterol is a waxy, fat-like substance found in all cells of the body. It is essential for making hormones, vitamin D, and substances that help you digest foods. Your body makes all the cholesterol it needs, but it's also found in foods from animal sources, such as meat and dairy products. There are two main types of cholesterol: low-density lipoprotein (LDL), often called "bad" cholesterol because high levels can lead to plaque buildup in arteries, and high-density lipoprotein (HDL), known as "good" cholesterol because it helps remove other forms of cholesterol from your bloodstream....

Cholesterol

Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase (A-TPO) antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system. They mistakenly target thyroid peroxidase, an enzyme crucial for thyroid hormone production. High levels of A-TPO antibodies can indicate autoimmune thyroid disorders, such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis or Graves' disease. These conditions lead to either underactive or overactive thyroid function, impacting overall health....

A-TPO

The cholesterol-to-HDL ratio, often abbreviated as Chol:HDL ratio, is a calculation derived from dividing your total cholesterol number by your HDL (high-density lipoprotein) cholesterol number. This ratio is used to assess the risk of developing heart disease. A lower ratio indicates a lower risk of heart disease, as it suggests a higher proportion of "good" cholesterol (HDL) relative to the total cholesterol level. This ratio is considered by some health professionals as a more precise indicator of heart disease risk compared to total cholesterol levels alone....




Cholesterol:HDL Ratio

Choline is an essential nutrient crucial for several bodily functions. It forms part of cell membranes, aids in the production of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (important for muscle control, memory, and mood), supports fat metabolism and liver health, and is vital for brain development and neural tube formation during pregnancy. Additionally, choline plays a role in DNA synthesis, essential for growth and overall nervous system function....

Choline

Citramalate, or citramalic acid, is a metabolic byproduct and a urinary marker that can indicate bacterial dysbiosis or overgrowth. Its presence can also be indicative of potential metabolic disturbances....




Citramalate

CK, or Creatine Kinase, is an enzyme found in the heart, brain, skeletal muscle, and other tissues. Elevated levels of CK in the blood can indicate muscle damage, as this enzyme leaks out of damaged muscle cells. There are different types of CK, including CK-MM found in skeletal muscle, CK-MB primarily in the heart, and CK-BB typically in the brain. Measuring CK levels is useful for diagnosing and monitoring muscle damage, including damage from myocardial infarction (heart attack)....

CK (Creatine Kinase)

Cystathionine is a non-protein amino acid, an intermediate in the metabolism of methionine and cysteine, two essential amino acids. It is a key compound in the transsulfuration pathway, where homocysteine is converted into cystathionine by the enzyme cystathionine β-synthase (CBS), and then cystathionine is further converted into cysteine by the enzyme cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE)....

Cystathionine

Ethyl malonate, from a metabolic perspective, is significant as a biomarker for certain metabolic disorders. Elevated levels of ethyl malonate in the body, can indicate inherited metabolic disorders, such as ethylmalonic encephalopathy, or problems with fatty acid oxidation....

Ethyl malonate

Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) is an enzyme found in many organs throughout the body, with the highest concentrations in the liver. GGT plays a key role in the metabolism of glutathione, an important antioxidant. It's involved in the transfer of amino acids and peptides across cellular membranes and in glutathione metabolism. Elevated GGT levels are commonly used as a marker for liver damage, particularly in detecting bile duct obstructions and liver diseases related to alcohol consumption....




Globulin is a group of proteins in the blood that play various roles, including transporting hormones, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. They are also crucial components of the immune system, with certain globulins acting as antibodies that help fight infections. Globulins are synthesized in the liver and immune system, and their levels can indicate the status of immune response, liver function, and nutritional health....




Globulin

HbA1c, also known as glycated hemoglobin, is a form of hemoglobin that is chemically linked to glucose. It provides a picture of average blood sugar (glucose) levels over the previous two to three months, making it a crucial test for managing diabetes. Higher levels of HbA1c indicate poor blood sugar control, which can be due to diabetes or other factors affecting glucose metabolism. Regular monitoring of HbA1c helps in adjusting medications or lifestyle changes to better manage blood sugar levels....

HbA1c

HDL, or High-Density Lipoprotein, is known as "good" cholesterol. It plays a crucial role in heart health by transporting cholesterol from other parts of your body back to your liver, which then removes the cholesterol from your body. High levels of HDL cholesterol can lower your risk for heart disease and stroke, as it helps remove other forms of cholesterol from your bloodstream....

HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein)

Homovanillic acid (HVA) is a metabolite resulting from the breakdown of dopamine, a key neurotransmitter. It serves as an important marker for assessing dopamine activity in the body. Changes in HVA levels can indicate alterations in dopamine function, and they are also used to monitor the effectiveness of treatments that affect dopamine metabolism....

Homovanillic acid

High-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) is a blood test that detects lower levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), a marker of inflammation in the body. Unlike standard CRP tests, hs-CRP can identify minor inflammation levels, making it particularly useful in assessing the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including heart attacks and strokes. Elevated hs-CRP levels might indicate an increased risk of heart disease, even in the absence of other risk factors. Therefore, it's often used alongside other cardiac risk assessments to provide a more comprehensive picture of an individual's heart health....

hs-CRP

Hydroxymethylglutarate (HMG), particularly in its form as β-hydroxy β-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA), is crucial in human physiology, serving two primary functions. First, it is a key intermediate in cholesterol synthesis, essential for the formation of cell membranes, steroid hormones, and bile acids. Second, in the liver, HMG-CoA is involved in the production of ketone bodies during periods of fasting, carbohydrate-restricted diets, or intense exercise, providing an alternative energy source when glucose is low....

Hydroxymethylglutarate

Xanthurenate is a metabolite produced from the breakdown of the amino acid tryptophan via the kynurenine pathway. Elevated levels of xanthurenate can indicate a deficiency in vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), as this vitamin is a necessary cofactor in the pathway....

Xanthurenate

IgM (Immunoglobulin M) is a type of antibody that is produced by the body as a first response to infections, making it a crucial component of the immune system's initial defense mechanism. In the context of testing, IgM antibodies are often measured to diagnose recent infections, including Lyme disease caused by the Borrelia burgdorferi bacterium. The presence of IgM antibodies against specific pathogens in the blood can indicate a recent exposure to or infection by that pathogen. Due to their rapid response and short lifespan in the circulation, IgM levels can provide valuable information about early stages of infections....

IgM Antibodies

Vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) is a metabolite resulting from the breakdown of catecholamines like adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine. It serves as a clinical marker for assessing catecholamine activity. VMA levels are typically measured in urine and can be influenced by certain foods and medications....

Vanillylmandelic acid

Isocitrate is a crucial compound in the Krebs cycle, a key metabolic pathway for energy production in cells. It is formed from citrate and then converted to α-ketoglutarate, a process that generates NADH for ATP production. Isocitrate plays a role in linking various metabolic processes, including the synthesis of amino acids, nucleotides, and fatty acids....




Isocitrate

Ketones are substances produced when the body breaks down fats for energy, a process that occurs when carbohydrate intake is low, such as during fasting or following a ketogenic diet. This metabolic state is known as ketosis. Ketones are primarily produced in the liver and include beta-hydroxybutyrate, acetoacetate, and acetone. While ketones serve as an alternative energy source, especially for the brain, elevated levels can indicate problems such as diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in individuals with diabetes, which is a potentially life-threatening condition....

Ketones

Urinary urobilinogen is a byproduct of the breakdown of red blood cells, formed in the intestines from bilirubin and then excreted in the urine. Normally present in low concentrations, it can indicate liver function and health. Elevated or decreased levels can suggest various liver or hematologic conditions....

Urobilinogen (urine)

Urine density, also known as urine specific gravity, is a measure of the concentration of solutes in the urine. It reflects the kidney's ability to concentrate urine and is a key indicator of hydration status and kidney function. Normal urine density ranges, but deviations can suggest dehydration, overhydration, or kidney disorders....

Urine density

KMO, or Kynurenine 3-monooxygenase, is an enzyme that plays a key role in the kynurenine pathway, which is involved in the metabolism of the amino acid tryptophan. This enzyme is important because it influences the balance between different metabolites in the kynurenine pathway, which can have various effects on the body. KMO activity, therefore, has significant implications for brain health and is a focus of research in conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and schizophrenia....

KMO (enzyme)

Urea is a waste product formed in the liver through the metabolic breakdown of proteins. After its formation, urea is transported to the kidneys and is eventually excreted in the urine. The measurement of urea levels in the blood, often referred to as blood urea nitrogen (BUN), is a common test used to assess kidney function. Elevated levels of urea in the blood can indicate impaired kidney function or other conditions affecting the body's ability to process and excrete waste....

Urea

Kynurenine is a key metabolite in the breakdown of the essential amino acid tryptophan. It serves as a precursor to several biologically significant compounds, including neuroprotective kynurenic acid and neurotoxic quinolinic acid, playing a crucial role in various physiological and pathological processes in the body....

Kynurenine

LDL, or Low-Density Lipoprotein, is commonly known as "bad" cholesterol. It transports cholesterol particles throughout your body. LDL cholesterol is considered “bad” because high levels can lead to the buildup of plaque in your arteries, which increases the risk of heart disease and stroke. This plaque buildup can narrow the arteries and make them less flexible, a condition known as atherosclerosis....



LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein)

Urinary leukocytes are white blood cells present in the urine. Normally, there are few or no leukocytes in urine; their presence often indicates an infection or inflammation in the urinary tract or kidneys. They are important markers in diagnosing urinary tract infections (UTIs) and other kidney-related issues....



Leukocytes (urine)

Malate, or malic acid, is a crucial compound in cellular metabolism, particularly in the Krebs cycle, which occurs in the mitochondria. It plays a key role in energy production by being converted to oxaloacetate, a process that generates NADH, subsequently used to produce ATP, the cell's energy currency....



Malate

Urinary nitrates are chemical compounds normally not present in significant amounts in urine. The presence of nitrates in urine often indicates a bacterial infection, such as a urinary tract infection (UTI), as certain bacteria can convert naturally occurring urinary nitrite into nitrate. Testing for nitrates is a common method for detecting UTIs....



Nitrates (urine)

Non-HDL cholesterol is a measure of all the bad types of cholesterol, including LDL (low-density lipoprotein), VLDL (very low-density lipoprotein), and other lipid particles that contribute to the buildup of plaque in your arteries. It is calculated by subtracting your HDL (high-density lipoprotein) or "good" cholesterol level from your total cholesterol number. Non-HDL cholesterol is considered a more comprehensive marker of risk for heart disease than LDL cholesterol alone, as it encompasses all the atherogenic particles....



Non-HDL Cholesterol

PSA, or Prostate-Specific Antigen, is a protein produced by the prostate gland, and its levels in the blood can be measured to screen for prostate cancer. Elevated PSA levels can indicate prostate cancer but can also be caused by benign conditions like prostatic hyperplasia or prostatitis....



PSA free

The PSA ratio, or free-to-total PSA ratio, is calculated by dividing the level of free PSA (not bound to proteins) by the total PSA (free plus protein-bound PSA) in the blood, and then multiplying by 100 to get a percentage. This ratio helps differentiate between benign and malign prostatic conditions, especially in men with moderately elevated total PSA levels....



PSA ratio

Quinolinic acid is a metabolite in the kynurenine pathway, which is involved in the metabolism of the amino acid tryptophan. It is known for its role as an excitotoxin in the central nervous system. High levels of quinolinic acid have been associated with conditions such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and some forms of epilepsy, as well as in certain psychiatric disorders like depression....

Quinolinic acid

S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) is a compound naturally occurring in all cells, formed from methionine and ATP. It's crucial for methylation processes, neurotransmitter synthesis (affecting mood), joint health, and liver function. SAMe is used as a supplement for conditions like depression, osteoarthritis, and liver diseases....

S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe)

Succinate is a key intermediate in the Krebs cycle, essential for energy production in cells. It helps convert nutrients into ATP, the cell's main energy source. Beyond its role in the Krebs cycle, succinate serves as a metabolic link in processes like amino acid and fatty acid synthesis. It also acts as a signaling molecule, influencing inflammation and response to low oxygen conditions....

Succinate

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC) is a blood test that measures the ability of transferrin, a protein in the blood, to carry iron. TIBC is an indirect way of determining how much transferrin in the blood is available to bind to iron. Transferrin is the main protein in the blood that binds to iron and transports it throughout the body. TIBC is often used alongside other iron tests to diagnose anemia or iron overload disorders....

Total Iron Binding Capacity (TIBC)

Total protein refers to the combined amount of albumin and globulin in the blood. Albumin, the most abundant protein in blood plasma, maintains oncotic pressure and transports various substances. Globulins are involved in immune response, blood clotting, and other functions. Total protein levels are a key indicator of nutritional status and liver and kidney health....

Total Protein

Transferrin saturation is a blood test that measures the percentage of transferrin, a blood protein that binds to iron, which is actually bound to iron. It is a useful indicator of the availability and usage of iron within the body. This test helps in assessing iron deficiency or iron overload. Transferrin saturation is calculated using serum iron and total iron-binding capacity (TIBC) or transferrin measurements. A low transferrin saturation may indicate iron deficiency, while a high saturation may suggest iron overload conditions like hemochromatosis....

Transferrin Saturation

Transglutaminase IgG (tTG-IgG) is a specific antibody test used in the diagnosis of celiac disease and other gluten-related disorders. This test measures the IgG antibodies against tissue transglutaminase, an enzyme found in the intestinal lining. Unlike the more common Transglutaminase IgA (tTG-IgA) test, the tTG-IgG is typically used when a patient has a deficiency in IgA or when IgA test results are ambiguous. It helps in identifying gluten intolerance by indicating an immune response that occurs when a person with celiac disease consumes gluten, leading to an autoimmune reaction that damages the small intestine....

Transglutaminase IgG

Triglycerides are a type of fat (lipid) found in your blood. When you eat, your body converts any calories it doesn't need to use right away into triglycerides, which are stored in your fat cells. Later, hormones release triglycerides for energy between meals. A high triglyceride level combined with high LDL (bad) cholesterol or low HDL (good) cholesterol is associated with atherosclerosis, the buildup of fatty deposits in artery walls, increasing the risk of heart attack and stroke....

Triglycerides

Alpha-ketoglutarate (AKG) is a key compound in the Krebs cycle, an essential metabolic pathway for energy production in cells. It plays a crucial role in converting nutrients into energy, amino acid metabolism, and nitrogen transport. Additionally, Alpha-ketoglutarate is involved in various cellular processes, including signaling and regulation....

Alpha-ketoglutarate

Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) is an enzyme found in various tissues throughout the body, with the highest concentrations in the liver, bones, kidneys, and digestive system. ALP plays a crucial role in breaking down proteins in the body and is involved in processes like dephosphorylation. In the liver, ALP is linked to the bile ducts and is useful in diagnosing liver and bone diseases. Elevated levels can indicate bile duct obstruction or bone diseases, while low levels can be seen in certain genetic disorders and malnutrition....

ALP (Alkaline phosphatase)

Albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma and plays a critical role in maintaining oncotic pressure, which helps keep fluid within the blood vessels. It also binds and transports various substances in the blood, including hormones, vitamins, and drugs. Albumin is produced in the liver, and its levels in the blood are a key indicator of liver function and nutritional status....

Albumin

Adipate, or adipic acid, is a component in lipid metabolism and a biomarker for certain metabolic dysfunctions, particularly those affecting fatty acid oxidation. This abnormal presence, often found in urine or blood tests, can help diagnose and monitor metabolic conditions....

Adipate

3-Hydroxykynurenine (3-OH-kynurenine) is a metabolite in the kynurenine pathway, which is involved in the metabolism of the amino acid tryptophan. It is an intermediate product formed during the conversion of tryptophan to other compounds, including the essential coenzyme NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide)....

3-Hydroxykynurenine

The SAMe/SAH ratio is a measure of the balance between S-Adenosylmethionine (SAMe) and S-Adenosylhomocysteine (SAH) in the body, reflecting cellular methylation capacity. SAMe is a crucial methyl donor for various biochemical processes, while SAH is a byproduct formed after SAMe donates a methyl group. A high SAMe/SAH ratio indicates good methylation capacity, beneficial for cellular functions and overall health....

SAMe-SAH ratio

Pyruvate is a key compound in cellular metabolism, formed as the end product of glycolysis when glucose is broken down. In the presence of oxygen, it contributes to energy production by entering the citric acid cycle. Under low oxygen conditions, such as during intense exercise, pyruvate is converted into lactate, allowing continued ATP (energy) production. Pyruvate also plays a role in gluconeogenesis, the process of generating glucose from non-carbohydrate sources, and is a precursor for amino acid synthesis....




Pyruvate

5-Hydroxyindoleacetate (5-HIAA) is the primary metabolite of serotonin, a key neurotransmitter. It is used clinically as a diagnostic marker, particularly in the detection and monitoring of carcinoid tumors, which can overproduce serotonin. Urinary 5-HIAA can also be used as a approximate marker for serotonin levels in the body....

5-Hydroxyindoleacetate

Bilirubin is a yellow compound that occurs in the body as a byproduct of red blood cell breakdown. It travels to the liver, where it's processed and excreted in bile. A healthy liver will filter bilirubin from the blood, converting it into a form that can be eliminated through the digestive tract. Bilirubin levels in the blood are an important indicator of liver function and health, as well as of potential issues with bile ducts or red blood cell breakdown....

Bilirubin

Citrate is a key component in the citric acid cycle, crucial for energy production in aerobic organisms. It helps in breaking down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to generate ATP (energy). Citrate also aids in regulating the body's acid-base balance and plays a role in preventing kidney stones by binding with calcium....

Citrate

Creatinine is a waste product produced by muscle metabolism, commonly used as an indicator of kidney function. It is generated from creatine, a molecule important for energy production in muscles, and is filtered out of the blood by the kidneys and excreted in urine...

Creatinine

Anti-Thyroid Peroxidase (A-TPO) antibodies are proteins produced by the immune system. They mistakenly target thyroid peroxidase, an enzyme crucial for thyroid hormone production. High levels of A-TPO antibodies can indicate autoimmune thyroid disorders, such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis or Graves' disease. These conditions lead to either underactive or overactive thyroid function, impacting overall health....




D-dimer

EBNA is a protein produced by EBV (Epstein Barr) during the later stages of infection. The presence of EBNA IgG antibodies usually indicates that the infection occurred some time ago, as these antibodies typically develop several weeks to months after the initial infection and remain detectable for life. Testing for EBNA IgG is often used in conjunction with VCA to distinguish between a current or past infection and to assess the stage of the infection....



EBNA (Epstein-Barr Nuclear Antigen)

EBV VCA is a protein component of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) that appears early in the course of infection. Testing for VCA is a key indicator in diagnosing both acute and chronic EBV infections....



EBV VCA (Epstein-Barr Virus Viral Capsid Antigen)

GOT, or Gamma-Glutamyl Transferase, is an enzyme found in various tissues of the body, with the highest concentrations in the liver. It plays a crucial role in the metabolism of glutathione, a powerful antioxidant, and is involved in the transport of amino acids across cell membranes. GOT is commonly measured in blood tests and is used as a marker of liver and biliary tract function....

IDO (Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase) is an enzyme crucial in metabolizing the amino acid tryptophan along the kynurenine pathway. It plays a key role in immune regulation by depleting tryptophan, which can suppress immune responses. This function is significant in cancer research, as tumors may exploit it to evade the immune system. IDO is also involved in various conditions, including psychiatric disorders and neurodegenerative diseases, and is influenced by inflammation and stress....

IDO (enzyme)

IgG (Immunoglobulin G) is the most abundant type of antibody in the blood and plays a critical role in the immune system's long-term response to infections. In the context of Lyme disease, caused by the bacterium Borrelia burgdorferi, IgG antibodies are measured to assess past exposure or later stages of the infection. Unlike IgM antibodies, which appear shortly after infection, IgG antibodies develop more slowly and can remain in the body for a long time, providing prolonged immunity against reinfection....




IgG Antibodies

Kynurenic acid is a metabolite produced in the kynurenine pathway, which is involved in the metabolism of the amino acid tryptophan. It is known for its role in the nervous system, where it acts as a neuroprotective agent. It's significant in neurological and psychiatric research, as imbalances are linked to conditions like schizophrenia and depression....

Kynurenic acid

Amylase is an enzyme that plays a crucial role in digestion. It is produced by the pancreas and salivary glands. Amylase's primary function is to break down complex carbohydrates, such as starches and glycogen, into simpler sugars like maltose and glucose, which can be easily absorbed by the body....

Amylase

Lactate, commonly known as lactic acid, is a byproduct of anaerobic metabolism, produced when the body breaks down glucose for energy without adequate oxygen, typically during intense exercise. It's associated with muscle fatigue and the "burn" sensation during strenuous activity. Lactate also plays a role in the Cori cycle, where it's converted back to glucose in the liver....

Lactate

ALT, or Alanine Aminotransferase, is an enzyme primarily found in the liver. It plays a crucial role in metabolizing proteins. When the liver is damaged or inflamed, ALT is released into the bloodstream, leading to an increase in its levels. Therefore, measuring ALT is a common way to assess liver health. Elevated levels of ALT can indicate liver damage or disease, while normal levels suggest a healthy liver....




ALT (Alanine Aminotransferase)

Methylmalonic acid (MMA) is a substance produced in the body during the metabolism of certain fats and proteins. It is a byproduct of the breakdown of an amino acid called methionine, and its levels are influenced by the amount of vitamin B12 in the body. MMA is particularly significant because elevated levels can be an indicator of vitamin B12 deficiency....

Methylmalonic acid (MMA)

Urinary protein, also known as proteinuria, refers to the presence of an abnormal amount of protein in the urine. Proteins, such as albumin, are vital components of blood, but they're not normally found in urine in significant amounts. The presence of protein in urine can be an indicator of kidney damage or disease, as healthy kidneys typically prevent significant protein loss through urine....



Protein (urine)

Suberic acid, also known as octanedioic acid, is a dicarboxylic acid that in a biological and physiological context, is primarily significant as a metabolic marker. Elevated levels of suberic acid in the body can indicate metabolic disorders, especially those related to fatty acid oxidation, such as medium-chain acyl-coenzyme A dehydrogenase (MCAD) deficiency....

Suberic acid

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Leukocytes (urine)

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